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Weapons & Rank/ratings

Mixed & Men's Steel Longsword
Current
-
Peak
1468 June 2026
Record
28W · 16L
Last
June 2026
Mixed & Men's Steel Sabre
Current
-
Peak
1354 May 2026
Record
24W · 21L
Last
June 2026
Mixed & Men's Steel Single Rapier
Current
-
Peak
1174 June 2026
Record
3W · 7L
Last
June 2026
Mixed & Men's Steel Rapier and Dagger
Current
-
Peak
1317 May 2026
Record
3W · 7L
Last
May 2026
Mixed & Men's Steel Sword and Buckler
Current
-
Peak
959 April 2026
Record
1W · 4L
Last
April 2026
Mixed & Men's Singlestick Regional
Current
-
Peak
1143 September 2024
Record
4W · 7L
Last
September 2025

Scout analysis

Sabre

23W · 21L (52%)
Form
Steady
Recent 55% vs older 50%
Record: 23W · 21L (52%)
Recent half (22 fights): 55%
Older half (22 fights): 50%
Delta: +5%
Current streak: 3 Losses
Based on 44 recorded sabre fights.
Schedule
Punching up
-0.3 vs expectation
Quality wins (won as clear underdog): 2
Upset losses (lost as clear favourite): 1
Over/under vs expectation: -0.3 (14 actual / 14.3 expected, n=35)
Expectation stats compare each result with the win chance implied by both fighters' ratings in that division.
Style
Measured
11 exchange-coded matches
Exchanges per point: 1.37
Avg exchanges / match: 9.5
Doubles / match: 0
First scorer rate: 55%
Dominant wins (shut-out): 0%
Comeback wins (was behind): 71%
Stage
Pool data only
Pool 56%
Pool stage: 19W · 15L (56%)
Elimination: needs 3+ coded fights.
Stage tagging depends on upstream division labels - some fights may be uncategorised.
Peak
Peak data pending
Peak volatility low
Peak rating: 1354 (May 2026)
Peak is relative to an isolated regional scene - see the "How to read this profile" note below.
By division
Mixed Steel Sabre 21W · 16L (57%) +0.6 vs expectation (n=29) avg opponent 1224
+7 fights in 2 thinner divisions

Longsword

27W · 16L (63%)
Form
Rising
Recent 71% vs older 57%
Record: 27W · 16L (63%)
Recent half (21 fights): 71%
Older half (21 fights): 57%
Delta: +14%
Current streak: 1 Loss
Based on 43 recorded longsword fights.
Schedule
Punching up
+3.3 vs expectation
Quality wins (won as clear underdog): 3
Upset losses (lost as clear favourite): 1
Over/under vs expectation: +3.3 (21 actual / 17.7 expected, n=36)
Expectation stats compare each result with the win chance implied by both fighters' ratings in that division.
Style
Fast starter
21 exchange-coded matches
Exchanges per point: 1.23
Avg exchanges / match: 9.4
Doubles / match: 0
First scorer rate: 86%
Dominant wins (shut-out): 14%
Comeback wins (was behind): 79%
Stage
Pool data only
Pool 65%
Pool stage: 20W · 11L (65%)
Elimination: needs 3+ coded fights.
Stage tagging depends on upstream division labels - some fights may be uncategorised.
Peak
Peak data pending
Peak volatility low
Peak rating: 1468 (June 2026)
Peak is relative to an isolated regional scene - see the "How to read this profile" note below.
By division
Mixed Steel Longsword 13W · 10L (57%) +1.1 vs expectation (n=18) avg opponent 1344
Mixed Steel Longsword (Tier B) 12W · 3L (80%) +2.1 vs expectation (n=13) avg opponent 1147
+5 fights in 1 thinner division

Rapier & Dagger

8W · 9L (47%)
Form
Steady
Recent 50% vs older 50%
Record: 8W · 9L (47%)
Recent half (8 fights): 50%
Older half (8 fights): 50%
Delta: 0%
Current streak: 1 Loss
Based on 17 recorded rapier & dagger fights.
Schedule
Punching up
-0.8 vs expectation
Quality wins (won as clear underdog): 1
Over/under vs expectation: -0.8 (4 actual / 4.8 expected, n=11)
Expectation stats compare each result with the win chance implied by both fighters' ratings in that division.
Style
Fast starter
8 exchange-coded matches
Exchanges per point: 1.31
Avg exchanges / match: 9.5
Doubles / match: 0
First scorer rate: 75%
Dominant wins (shut-out): 0%
Comeback wins (was behind): 100%
Stage
Pool data only
Pool 57%
Pool stage: 8W · 6L (57%)
Elimination: needs 3+ coded fights.
Stage tagging depends on upstream division labels - some fights may be uncategorised.
Peak
Peak data pending
Peak volatility low
Peak is relative to an isolated regional scene - see the "How to read this profile" note below.

Singlestick

4W · 7L (36%)
Form
Cooling
Recent 20% vs older 40%
Record: 4W · 7L (36%)
Recent half (5 fights): 20%
Older half (5 fights): 40%
Delta: -20%
Current streak: 3 Losses
Based on 11 recorded singlestick fights.
Schedule
Schedule forming
Expectation data pending
Over/under needs 5+ rated fights - calculating as more data lands.
Expectation stats compare each result with the win chance implied by both fighters' ratings in that division.
Style
Building signal
Needs more exchange data
Style signal needs per-exchange match data. Once enough of this fighter's exchanges are recorded, this card will sharpen into scoring tempo, doubles rate, comeback wins, early vs late scoring, and more.
Stage
Pool data only
Pool 40%
Pool stage: 4W · 6L (40%)
Elimination: needs 3+ coded fights.
Stage tagging depends on upstream division labels - some fights may be uncategorised.
Peak
Peak data pending
Peak volatility low
Peak rating: 1143 (September 2024)
Peak is relative to an isolated regional scene - see the "How to read this profile" note below.

Smallsword

6W · 2L · 3D (55%)
Form
Rising
Recent 60% vs older 40%
Record: 6W · 2L · 3D (55%)
Recent half (5 fights): 60%
Older half (5 fights): 40%
Delta: +20%
Current streak: 1 Loss
Based on 11 recorded smallsword fights.
Schedule
Schedule forming
Expectation data pending
Over/under needs 5+ rated fights - calculating as more data lands.
Expectation stats compare each result with the win chance implied by both fighters' ratings in that division.
Style
Building signal
Needs more exchange data
Style signal needs per-exchange match data. Once enough of this fighter's exchanges are recorded, this card will sharpen into scoring tempo, doubles rate, comeback wins, early vs late scoring, and more.
Stage
Elim data only
Elim 100%
Pool stage: needs 3+ coded fights.
Elimination: 3W · 0L (100%)
Stage tagging depends on upstream division labels - some fights may be uncategorised.
Peak
Peak data pending
Peak volatility low
Peak is relative to an isolated regional scene - see the "How to read this profile" note below.

Rapier

3W · 7L (30%)
Form
Rising
Recent 40% vs older 20%
Record: 3W · 7L (30%)
Recent half (5 fights): 40%
Older half (5 fights): 20%
Delta: +20%
Current streak: 1 Loss
Based on 10 recorded rapier fights.
Schedule
Schedule forming
Expectation data pending
Quality wins (won as clear underdog): 1
Over/under needs 5+ rated fights - calculating as more data lands.
Expectation stats compare each result with the win chance implied by both fighters' ratings in that division.
Style
Measured
3 exchange-coded matches
Exchanges per point: 20
Avg exchanges / match: 6.7
Doubles / match: 0
First scorer rate: 0%
Stage
Pool data only
Pool 33%
Pool stage: 3W · 6L (33%)
Elimination: needs 3+ coded fights.
Stage tagging depends on upstream division labels - some fights may be uncategorised.
Peak
Peak data pending
Peak volatility low
Peak rating: 1317 (May 2026)
Peak is relative to an isolated regional scene - see the "How to read this profile" note below.

Sword & Buckler

1W · 4L (20%)
Form
Building
20% win rate · 5 fights
Record: 1W · 4L (20%)
Trajectory needs 8+ fights - will sharpen as more data lands.
Current streak: 1 Win
Based on 5 recorded sword & buckler fights.
Schedule
Schedule forming
Expectation data pending
Over/under needs 5+ rated fights - calculating as more data lands.
Expectation stats compare each result with the win chance implied by both fighters' ratings in that division.
Style
Building signal
Needs more exchange data
Style signal needs per-exchange match data. Once enough of this fighter's exchanges are recorded, this card will sharpen into scoring tempo, doubles rate, comeback wins, early vs late scoring, and more.
Stage
Pool data only
Pool 20%
Pool stage: 1W · 4L (20%)
Elimination: needs 3+ coded fights.
Stage tagging depends on upstream division labels - some fights may be uncategorised.
Peak
Peak data pending
Peak volatility low
Peak rating: 959 (April 2026)
Peak is relative to an isolated regional scene - see the "How to read this profile" note below.
Reach
10 events · uk · 1.8 yrs active
Tournaments: 10
Countries fought in: 1 (uk)
Months active: 21
Fights / year: 80.6

Clubmates · Dawn Duellists Society (30)

Events & fights (11)

Albion Cup 2026
June 2026 · uk
12 fights
Rating outcome
  • Mixed & Men's Steel Longsword Rank 887 ▲39 · 1,468.5
  • Mixed & Men's Steel Sabre Rank 746 ▼14 · 1,350.3
  • Mixed & Men's Steel Single Rapier Rank 963 ▲511 · 1,174.7
LOSS
Minna Vasarainen · EHMS Longsword · Pools Score 4-7 Review →
1674 24%
WIN
Ben Conway-Smith · Cambridge HEMA Longsword · Pools Score 8-6 Review →
1330 75%
LOSS
Kelsey Dame · London Historical Fencing Club Longsword · Pools Score 5-10 Review →
1459 58%
WIN
1642 29%
LOSS
Ville Välimäki · EHMS Longsword · Top 16 Score 5-10 Review →
1927 5%
LOSS
1679 14%
LOSS
Pedro San Miguel · Ausardia Sabre · Pools Score 3-10 Review →
1953 3%
LOSS
Duncan McLaren · Caledonian Sword Guild Rapier · Pools Score 1-12 Review →
1425 34%
WIN
Elle Hames · Mercian Medieval Fight Club Rapier · Pools Score 11-6 Review →
1327 39%
LOSS
Eetu Sipilä · EHMS Rapier · Pools Score 0-11 Review →
1399 30%
WIN
Tobias Hyder · Exmoor HEMA Rapier · Pools Score 7-4 Review →
LOSS
Luigi Simone Menichino · Comense Scherma Rapier · Top 16 Score 1-10 Review →
1808 16%
London HEMA Open 2026
May 2026 · uk
19 fights
Rating outcome
  • Mixed & Men's Steel Longsword Rank 920 ▲461 · 1,459.4
  • Mixed & Men's Steel Sabre Rank 726 ▲31 · 1,354.6
  • Mixed & Men's Steel Rapier and Dagger Rank 416 ▲75 · 1,317.6
WIN
Stevi Parker · Bucks Historical Longsword Longsword · Pools Score 10-6 Review →
1573 28%
WIN
Owen Hahn · London Historical Fencing Club Longsword · Pools Score 10-3 Review →
1609 24%
LOSS
Antoni Olbrychski · Akademia Szermierzy Longsword · Pools Score 0-10 Review →
2028 3%
WIN
Fynn Ruane · Canterbury Historical Fencing Club Longsword · Pools Score 10-2 Review →
WIN
Sam Pearson · Mercian Medieval Fight Club Longsword · Pools Score 12-4 Review →
1325 58%
LOSS
Hannes Zürcher · Reisläufer Bern Longsword · Top 32 Score 1-10 Review →
1522 32%
WIN
Perth Ophaswongse · London Historical Fencing Club Longsword · Top 64 Score 10-3 Review →
1434 51%
LOSS
Jason Kumar · London Historical Fencing Club Rapier & Dagger · Pools Score 6-10 Review →
1369 49%
LOSS
Stephen Cheney · Bucks Historical Longsword Rapier & Dagger · Pools Score 6-12 Review →
1494 30%
WIN
Mateusz Leksander · Ausardia Rapier & Dagger · Pools Score 9-6 Review →
1673 22%
WIN
Nikolay Kurtov · Gladius et Codex Rapier & Dagger · Pools Score 11-3 Review →
WIN
Dimitri ten Have · Historisch Schermgilde Limburg Rapier & Dagger · Pools Score 8-6 Review →
941 68%
LOSS
Francois van der Merwe · Smart HEMA Clubs Rapier & Dagger · Top 24 Score 8-10 Review →
1449 42%
LOSS
1377 34%
WIN
Ferdinand Hutter · Säbelrassler Sabre · Pools Score 8-7 Review →
1596 19%
LOSS
Omar Amerah · Smart HEMA Clubs Sabre · Pools Score 3-12 Review →
1700 12%
WIN
548 98%
WIN
Adam Akhtar · Queen Mary HEMA Sabre · Pools Score 11-0 Review →
981 63%
LOSS
Jonas Bürgi · Reisläufer Bern Sabre · Top 48 Score 1-10 Review →
1545 25%
Herne's Cup Open 2026
April 2026 · uk
26 fights
Rating outcome
  • Mixed & Men's Steel Longsword Rank 1368 ▲786 · 1,380.3
  • Mixed & Men's Steel Sabre Rank 755 ▲99 · 1,333.1
  • Mixed & Men's Steel Rapier and Dagger Rank 489 ▲89 · 1,254.4
  • Mixed & Men's Steel Sword and Buckler Rank 1235 · 959.5
WIN
Ben Conway-Smith · Cambridge HEMA Longsword · Gold Medal Match Score 11-5 Review →
1296 58%
WIN
Charles Burt · Swordpunch Longsword · Pools Score 10-0 Review →
889 68%
LOSS
Michael Harwood · Smart HEMA Clubs Longsword · Pools Score 9-10 Review →
1070 66%
WIN
James Nickelson · MK Longsword Longsword · Pools Score 11-6 Review →
WIN
1222 66%
WIN
Rhys Howells · Academy of Steel Longsword · Semifinals Score 11-4 Review →
1300 55%
WIN
William Leedham · Swordpunch Longsword · Top 16 Score 11-7 Review →
1088 67%
WIN
Sam Head · MK Longsword Longsword · Top 32 Score 10-0 Review →
1039 72%
WIN
Charles Django Cornell · Smart HEMA Clubs Longsword · Top 8 Score 11-6 Review →
1282 53%
LOSS
Richard Potter · Wivenhoe HEMA Rapier & Dagger · Pools Score 5-10 Review →
1482 46%
LOSS
Patrick Rance · Smart HEMA Clubs Rapier & Dagger · Pools Score 0-12 Review →
1879 20%
WIN
Raquel Pullicino · Smart HEMA Clubs Rapier & Dagger · Pools Score 8-3 Review →
1188 62%
LOSS
Amir Sheikh-Warak · Schola Gladiatoria Rapier & Dagger · Pools Score 7-10 Review →
1450 48%
WIN
Giovanni Ricco · Culham Historical Fencing Club Rapier & Dagger · Pools Score 8-3 Review →
955 63%
LOSS
Robert Knowles · Smart HEMA Clubs Rapier & Dagger · Top 16 Score 2-5 Review →
1705 31%
LOSS
Kristofer Stanson · Stockholm HEMA Sabre · Pools Score 4-10 Review →
1825 6%
LOSS
James Ferone · Ausardia Sabre · Pools Score 1-10 Review →
1408 38%
WIN
1088 75%
WIN
Elliot Heeson · Basingstoke HEMA Sabre · Pools Score 10-0 Review →
1042 52%
LOSS
Omar Amerah · Smart HEMA Clubs Sabre · Pools Score 7-8 Review →
1693 12%
WIN
Sophie Evans · Edel Fencing Academy Sabre · Top 24 Score 10-7 Review →
1260 54%
LOSS
Harry Laan · Southampton Historical Fencing Sword & Buckler · Pools Score 12-5 Review →
1469
LOSS
Alfie Smith · Smart HEMA Clubs Sword & Buckler · Pools Score 10-2 Review →
1267
LOSS
Mateusz Leksander · Ausardia Sword & Buckler · Pools Score 0-12 Review →
1643
LOSS
Madalin Balbae · The School of the Sword Sword & Buckler · Pools Score 2-10 Review →
1152
WIN
Daniel King · Smart HEMA Clubs Sword & Buckler · Pools Score 11-5 Review →
853
Burns Birthday Bash 2026
January 2026 · uk
16 fights
Rating outcome
  • Mixed & Men's Steel Sabre Rank 801 ▲393 · 1,301.7
LOSS
Ash Bell · Saorsa: Scottish Swordsmanship Sabre · Bronze Medal Match Score 2-5 Review →
1168 40%
WIN
Trissdan Thorne · Dawn Duellists Society Sabre · Pools Score 5-3 Review →
WIN
Anya Penfold · The Vanguard Centre Sabre · Pools Score 5-2 Review →
WIN
Ellie O'Leary · The Vanguard Centre Sabre · Pools Score 5-0 Review →
WIN
1006 58%
WIN
Maeve McCormick · The Vanguard Centre Sabre · Pools Score 5-2 Review →
1278 46%
LOSS
James MacGilp · The Institute for Historical Arts Sabre · Semifinals Score 4-5 Review →
1564 17%
WIN
919 58%
WIN
Bogdan Vynohradov · Dawn Duellists Society Smallsword · Bronze Medal Match
WIN
Toni Santoyo McLeod · Dawn Duellists Society Smallsword · Bronze Medal Match
WIN
John Hamilton · Saorsa: Scottish Swordsmanship Smallsword · Consolation Bracket Score 5-3 Review →
WIN
James MacGilp · The Institute for Historical Arts Smallsword · Consolation Bracket Score 4-5 Review →
WIN
Maeve McCormick · The Vanguard Centre Smallsword · Consolation Semifinals Score 5-2 Review →
LOSS
Benjamin Hamilton · Saorsa: Scottish Swordsmanship Smallsword · Gold Medal Match
WIN
Ellie O'Leary · The Vanguard Centre Smallsword · Top 16 Score 5-0 Review →
LOSS
Stramash 2025
October 2025 · uk
6 fights
Rating outcome
  • Mixed & Men's Steel Sabre Rank 1114 ▲510 · 1,200.7
WIN
1424 21%
WIN
WIN
WIN
WIN
Dennis Wisdom · The Vanguard Centre Sabre · Top 32 Score 5-1 Review →
851 52%
LOSS
1306 29%
Edgebana 2025
September 2025 · uk
9 fights
Rating outcome
  • Mixed & Men's Steel Longsword Rank 1934 ▲12 · 1,286.5
  • Mixed & Men's Singlestick Rank 256 ▼1 · 1,143.4
WIN
1114 68%
WIN
Ryan Black · Renaissance Martial Arts Society Longsword · Pools Score 10-2 Review →
867 74%
LOSS
Ville Suutarinen · EHMS Longsword · Pools Score 5-10 Review →
1472 36%
LOSS
Szymon Masiak · The Institute for Historical Arts Longsword · Pools Score 4-12 Review →
1454 40%
LOSS
Duncan McLaren · Caledonian Sword Guild Longsword · Top 32 Score 1-11 Review →
1708 17%
WIN
Szymon Masiak · The Institute for Historical Arts Singlestick · Pools Score 4-12 Review →
LOSS
Omar Amerah · Smart HEMA Clubs Singlestick · Pools
LOSS
LOSS
1723 21%
Albion Cup 2025
June 2025 · uk
16 fights
Rating outcome
  • Mixed & Men's Steel Longsword Rank 1878 ▲954 · 1,286.3
  • Mixed & Men's Steel Sabre Rank 1509 ▲115 · 1,059.6
  • Mixed & Men's Steel Single Rapier Rank 1221 · 1,000.1
LOSS
Kristian Barlow · Smart HEMA Clubs Longsword · Pools Score 2-10 Review →
1355 44%
WIN
763 84%
WIN
Okello Janneh · Clashing Steel Longsword Club Longsword · Pools Score 6-4 Review →
983 63%
WIN
Chan Ning Long · Einherjar HEMA Club Longsword · Pools Score 10-5 Review →
LOSS
Winston Lewis · Edel Fencing Academy Longsword · Top 16 Score 0-11 Review →
1319 45%
WIN
Daniel Antrobus · Mercian Medieval Fight Club Longsword · Top 32 Score 11-3 Review →
1296 52%
LOSS
934 48%
WIN
LOSS
1239 31%
WIN
1117 43%
LOSS
James Ferone · Ausardia Sabre · Top 12
900 49%
LOSS
Ted Smith · Smart HEMA Clubs Rapier · Pools Score 2-10 Review →
1527
WIN
Richard Potter · Wivenhoe HEMA Rapier · Pools Score 11-3 Review →
1414
LOSS
Reinis Rinka · HEMA Riga Rapier · Pools Score 0-11 Review →
1809
LOSS
958
LOSS
Herne's Cup : March 2025
March 2025 · uk
17 fights
Rating outcome
  • Mixed & Men's Steel Longsword Rank 2650 ▲1428 · 1,174.0
  • Mixed & Men's Steel Sabre Rank 1486 ▲352 · 1,020.5
  • Mixed & Men's Steel Rapier and Dagger Rank 436 · 1,213.7
LOSS
Alex Roberts · Liverpool HEMA Longsword · Elimination Bracket Score 7-10 Review →
LOSS
Robbie McSweeney · Smart HEMA Clubs Longsword · Pool Set 1 Score 3-10 Review →
1285 40%
WIN
Tristano Munini · Swordpunch Longsword · Pool Set 1 Score 12-4 Review →
WIN
Okello Janneh · Clashing Steel Longsword Club Longsword · Pool Set 1 Score 10-0 Review →
1013 46%
WIN
Ben Johns-Watson · University of Chester HEMA Longsword · Pool Set 1 Score 10-9 Review →
WIN
Aria Ursell · The Institute for Historical Arts Longsword · Pool Set 1 Score 12-8 Review →
884 62%
LOSS
Wojciech Skoczynski · SwordFight Rapier & Dagger · Eighth-Finals
875
WIN
Richard Potter · Wivenhoe HEMA Rapier & Dagger · Pool Set 1
1418
LOSS
Sophie Evans · Edel Fencing Academy Rapier & Dagger · Pool Set 1
WIN
Francois van der Merwe · Smart HEMA Clubs Rapier & Dagger · Pool Set 1
1260
WIN
John Waller · The School of the Sword Rapier & Dagger · Pool Set 1
993
LOSS
Wojciech Skoczynski · SwordFight Sabre · Eighth-Finals
1105 39%
WIN
Katrina Ng · Cambridge HEMA Sabre · Pool Set 1
LOSS
Alex Gilbank · Smart HEMA Clubs Sabre · Pool Set 1
895 53%
WIN
Wolf Wolfman · Ausardia Sabre · Pool Set 1
1187 42%
WIN
742 58%
LOSS
1298 33%
Glasgow HEMA Open 2025
February 2025 · uk
No match-level data
10 fights
Rating outcome
  • Mixed & Men's Steel Longsword Rank 4077 ▲939 · 963.2
  • Mixed & Men's Steel Sabre Rank 1838 ▲104 · 886.6
LOSS
1744 35%
WIN
884 67%
LOSS
1231 53%
LOSS
1041 56%
LOSS
1527 44%
WIN
LOSS
1225 54%
LOSS
810 61%
LOSS
1124 50%
Edgebana 2024
September 2024 · uk
7 fights
Rating outcome
  • Mixed & Men's Singlestick Rank 188 · 1,143.9
LOSS
1622
WIN
Andrew Mason Singlestick · Pool Set 1 Score 10-1 Review →
LOSS
Jonathan Spouge · The Vanguard Centre Singlestick · Pool Set 1 Score 2-11 Review →
1272
LOSS
Wojciech Kwasik · Liverpool HEMA Singlestick · Pool Set 1 Score 1-11 Review →
WIN
Spencer Worthington · The 1595 Club Singlestick · Pool Set 1 Score 10-5 Review →
WIN
Tam Darlugdach · Caledonian Sword Guild Singlestick · Pool Set 1 Score 10-1 Review →
LOSS
Alex Tawns · Dawn Duellists Society Singlestick · Pool Set 1 Score 8-9 Review →
Stork's Beak Christmas Tournament 2024
December 2024
No match-level data
3 fights
How to read this profile

Rating is Glicko-2: the number shown is score - 2*RD (97.5% confidence lower bound), not raw skill. Inactive fighters "drift down" as RD grows - not because they got worse.

Hemaratings ratings don't factor in match scores, exchange counts, or doubles. Scout's score-margin and style metrics describe HOW a fighter fights, not the rating tier their results earned.

Hemaratings recomputes in batches days-to-weeks after events. A fighter's most recent tournament may not yet be reflected.

Regional At least one of this fighter's ratings is "island" - their rank/percentile is relative to an isolated regional scene, not the global population. Cross-scene rating comparisons are unreliable.